Wednesday, July 31, 2019

How Do Men and Woman Communicate Differently?

How do men and woman communicate differently in relationships? Monique Giresi Professor Martin Analytical Reading 81148 I. A. How To Stay Married Anne Kingston Magazine Article B. He Said, She Said Deborah Tannen Magazine Article II. A. The magazine article titled, â€Å"How to Stay Married,† begins with a story about a 68-year old woman named Cynthia. The article has a narrative style of writing in the beginning, however as one reads on, the style converts to expository. Anne Kingston, the author, begins to teach the reader by using examples of others and personal experiences to support her point.B. The magazine article titled, â€Å"He Said, She Said,† is an expository piece of writing. Deborah Tannen, the author, is a professor of linguistics at Georgetown University, and the author or several books; proving that Tannen is very knowledgeable on this subject. Throughout the article there are many examples (such as pre-school children conversing) in which Tannen uses t o as proof, to show that man are more interested in hierarchy, and woman are more interested in equality. III. A. How To Stay Married * Stability 1. â€Å"†¦better health, a rich shared history, the comfort of having omeone who has your back, and personal and economic stability amid global uncertainty. † (p2) 2. Stability- To have a solid and strong balance or partnership. 3. Having my boyfriend by my side as a person to talk to when I was upset, gave me a great sense of the stability. * Amid 4. â€Å"†¦better health, a rich shared history, the comfort of having someone who has your back, and personal and economic stability amid global uncertainty. † (p2) 5. Amid- During a course of something. 6. I know that I’ll always have my family for support amid the stressful school year. * Rampant 7. †¦sexual secrecy in marriage is rampant, from a woman buoyed by the memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p4) 8. Rampant- Uncontrollable rage. 9. When sitting in class during a discussion, it is rampant that I respond my opinion. * Infidelity 10. â€Å"Not that Krasnow is advocating infidelity, though flirting is fine†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p4) 11. Infidelity- Adultery; cheating on your spouse. 12. In my house, we don’t believe in divorce, nor do we believe in infidelity. Therefore, we get married at an older age so we are sure the man/woman is worth the marriage. * Extramarital 13. â€Å"Unlike husbands, wives are driven to extramarital affairs†¦ (p4) 14. Extramarital-Having sexual intercourse with someone other than your spouse. 15. It is wrong in many religions for one to include themselves in extramarital affairs. ————————————————- B. He Said, She Said * Innumerable 16. â€Å"†¦sheds a light on innumerable adult conversations – and frustrations. † (p3) 17. Innumerable- Incapable  of  being  counted;  countle ss. 18. Some art has innumerable opinions on its meaning. * Fathom 19. â€Å"†¦he did exactly what she requested and cannot fathom why she would keep talking about a problem†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p3) 20.Fathom- To understand; discover the meaning of 21. Many people cannot fathom the reasoning of some criminal’s actions. * Commiserate 22. â€Å"in other words, â€Å"topping† each other can be another way to commiserate† (p4) 23. Commiserate- To feel or express sorrow or sympathy for. 24. Everyday my mother calls my aunt and asks how she is feeling. She doesn’t do this because she should, she does it to commiserate my aunt. * Interplay 25. â€Å"How does this way of talking reflect the interplay of connection and hierarchy? † (p5) 26. Interplay- Circumstances, events, or personal relations. 7. How does practicing a sport from a young age reflect the interplay of performance later in life? * Inextricably 28. â€Å"The two are not mutually exclusive bu t inextricably intertwined. † (p7) 29. Inextricably- Extremely involved. 30. I am inextricably concerned with my schoolwork. IV. A. The magazine article titled, â€Å"How to Stay Married,† is written in a cause –effect pattern of organization. Authors who use the cause-and-effect approach don’t just tell what happened; they try to explain why it happened too. In this article, author Anne Kingston uses various examples of cause-and-effect.One sample from Kingston’s article is, â€Å"it’s precisely the disconnect between that expectation that husband and wife be everything to one another and the reality of marriage that causes women to keep secrets†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p3) Here Kingston begins her statement with the effect and concludes it with the cause of women keeping secrets. B. The magazine article titled, â€Å"He Said, She Said,† is written in a comparison-contrast pattern of organization. Authors who use the comparison-contrast approa ch both; compare and contrast two things throughout the argument. In this article, author, Deborah Tannen uses several examples of comparison-contrast.One illustration from Tannen’s article is, â€Å"her point of view, asking directions means making a fleeting connection to a stranger and getting where you are going without losing anything. From his perspective, he would be putting himself in a one-down position to a stranger†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p4). Here Tannen shows how opposite men and women think sometimes. V. C. How To Stay Married * Facts 1. â€Å"And what their stories reveal is that marital longevity requires wives to establish strong, separate identities from their husbands through creative coping mechanisms, some of them covert. (p2) Fact because there is proof within the book â€Å"The Secret Lives of Wives: Women Share What Its Really Like To Stay Married. † That book shares stories from different women, all proving this statement to be true. 2. â€Å"Both th e marriage rate and divorce rate are dropping. † (p3) Fact because the evidence to this is created from true statistics. D. He Said, She Said * Facts 3. â€Å"†¦men’s talk tends to focus on hierarchy†¦whereas women’s tends to focus on connection†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p2) Fact because earlier the author explains that she has collected and analyzed thousands of men and women interacting for over three decades.Her gathered information has led her to this conclusion. 4. â€Å"†¦I have a brother named Benjamin and a brother named Jonathan†¦I have a brother named Benjamin and a brother named Jonathan, too†¦why she would say such a thing. † (p3) Fact because the father is explaining a conversation that really happened. VI. E. How To Stay Married * Opinions 5. â€Å"Divorce fractured families. † (p3) Opinion because there are cases in which a divorce can help the family. Sometimes it may decrease arguments and stress. 6. †¦couples sh ould give each other ‘space’ for marriage to thrive†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p3) Opinion because some couples may feel that for a marriage to thrive the couple should be together as much as they could and share new experiences together as a whole, as one. F. He Said, She Said * Opinions 7. â€Å"†¦actual sibling relationships are defined not only by the connection of shared family, but also by the hierarchy of birth order. † Opinion because this is not true with every family. For example, I’m the youngest and my sibling and I feel equal among each other. We don’t see one another as higher, lower, better or worse. 8. Sisters often feel acutely competitive about who knows what about family member’s secrets-or who knows what first. † (p6) Opinion because this isn’t true for every sister relationship. For example, in my family we don’t have a preference with who knows what first, as long as eventually we all get to know the informa tion. Every family is different and every sister relationship is not alike. VII. G. The magazine article â€Å"How to Stay Married† by Anne Kingston discusses women’s role in modern marriages. There are several examples taken from the book â€Å"The Secrets Lives of Wives: What It Really Takes to Stay Married. This article also shares some stories of women committing adultery and Kingston provides some advice on the type of person one should marry. H. The magazine article â€Å"He Said, She Said† by Deborah Tannen discusses the different conversation styles of men and women. There are various examples proving that men’s discussion focuses more on hierarchy, and woman’s dialogue emphasizes more on connection. Some samples throughout the article include; a man and woman lost-wondering if they want to ask a stranger for directions or not, preschoolers playing with classmates, and sibling relationships.VIII. How Do Men And Women Communicate Differentl y In A Relationship? To start, men and women communicate differently in, or out, of a relationship. This is proven by Deborah Tannen in the magazine article â€Å"He Said, She Said. † Tannen explains that â€Å"†¦men’s talk tends to focus on hierarchy – competition for relative power – whereas women’s tends to focus on connection – relative closeness or distance†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p2) Tannen enforced her statement by filming preschoolers and proving the same conclusion. From this, we learn that these characteristics within us humans are not learned.Instead, they are with us from our childhood and throughout life. Sometimes these opposite perspectives create conflict within a relationship. For example, if a couple is lost and in need of directions; the male would prefer to figure it out on his own and the women would wish to get to the destination as soon as possible. The man will feel overpowered by a stranger who knows where to go, while the woman would feel it’s reasonable to ask someone, in order to save time. In addition, women expect too much from their relationship.Sometimes they rely on their husbands for happiness. However, in the magazine article, â€Å"How to Stay Married† Anne Kingston explains, â€Å"wives who don’t rely on their husbands for happiness end up having the happiest marriages. † (p2) When women don’t feel the passion from their husbands they begin to feel lonely, and this leads to the unfortunate, adultery. Kingston reveals, â€Å"it’s precisely the disconnect between the expectation that husband and wife be everything to one another and the reality of marriage that causes women to eep secrets†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p3) For example, if women were to talk about a problem she is having, she is looking for comfort, but the man may interpret that she is looking for a solution. Tannen explains, â€Å"†¦a man may well misread her conversational gambit as a r equest for help solving the problem. The result is mutual frustration: she blames him for telling her what to do and failing to provide the expected comfort, whereas he thinks he did exactly what she requested and cannot fathom why she would keep talking about a problem if she does not want to do anything about it. (p3) The communication difference between the opposite genders is inevitable. As Kingston writes, â€Å"you should marry someone who is flexible, confident and trusts you: if you can’t count on your husband or wife in a crazy unstable world then you’re marrying the wrong person. †(p5) IX. Works Cited Kingston, Anne. â€Å"How To Stay Married. † Maclean’s 10 October 2011: 6. Academic Search Complete. Web. 31 October 2011. Tannen, Deborah. â€Å"He Said, She Said. † Scientific American Mind May/June 2010: 8. Academic Search Complete. Web. 31 October 2011.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Human Factors Engineering †Geriatrics Essay

Professionals in gerontology and geriatrics estimate that by the middle of the 21st century, more than 60 million of people in the United States will be older than 65. Many of these people will cross the 85-age-line (Schulz, 2007). In this context, old people do not simply live longer, but remain active and productive and strive to preserve their individual independence even in older age. Obviously, these demographic shifts are extremely challenging to society. As long as the process of aging is associated with biological, psychological, physiological, and cognitive changes, older people face a whole set of issues, when trying to preserve stability of their links with the real-world environments. These are often impossible without using technologies. Human factors engineering is expected to make valuable contribution in geriatrics, making aging population less vulnerable to the abovementioned changes, and enhancing the quality of life among older adults. As a multidisciplinary science, human factors engineering is about numerous issues, but in this work special attention will be given to home and work activities (social aspects of human factors engineering), as well as the problems older people may experience with vision and hearing (individual aspects of human factors engineering). To begin with, â€Å"human factors engineering is the study of human beings and their interactions with products, environments, and equipment in the performance of tasks and activities† (Schulz, 2007). It is a multidisciplinary field in that it encompasses the disciplines of psychology, physiology, engineering, biomechanics, and computer science. Regardless of whether in aging, in pediatrics, or in adulthood, human factors engineering seeks to identify specific human capabilities, their limitations associated with age, the impact of these limitations on individuals’ interactions with the real-world environments, and the ways of improving these interactions. When it comes to geriatrics as the science of aging, human factors engineering is to address the four essential aspects, which actually shape an older person’s reality: work, home, transportation, and product design (Schulz, 2007). Some authors also include communication, safety and security, and leisure into the list of critical human factors engineering elements in aging (Czaja, 1990). Certainly, home and home activities present the greatest challenges to older people. Against a common belief, many older people live alone and have to cope (or even to fight) with a whole set of home activities. Apart from living alone, many older people are likely to spend most of their time at home, and many of them will also face a difficulty in performing even simple tasks like bathing, cooking, washing, cleaning, etc. The most common home traumas include falls, burns (e. g. from cooking), and poisoning from gases and vapors (Czaja, 1990). Given that to live alone for older people means to preserve their individuality, and that performing their home tasks without external assistance works to enhance their self-esteem, several technological and social solutions can help older people cope with these challenges. First of all, appropriate home design may substantially reduce the risk of traumas; convenient stairways, better lighting, handrails – all these can successfully remedy human factors issues in geriatrics (Schulz, 2007). Second, when it comes to household chores, a range of in-home services including delivered meals and home health visits can â€Å"extend the ability of the elderly to live independently† (Czaja, 1990). However, older people’s striving to independence is not limited to home activities. Work remains one of the critical factors of social and individual success later in life. Objectively, and in the light of the current demographic trends, businesses are no longer able to design work environments in a way that fits both younger and older workers; â€Å"clearly, most businesses and industries now need to develop strategies to accommodate an aging workforce† (Schulz, 2007). In this context, the two essential individual factors of aging come into place. First, business owners face a challenge of compensating for age-related visual deficits. Second, they are also bound to comply and cope with hearing issues in older workers. These two aspects are fairly regarded as the two most important human engineering factors of aging (Charness & Schaie, 2003). It is difficult to deny the fact that the changes in peripheral vision, color perceptions, motion perceptions, as well as anatomical changes in hearing, the loss of frequency and intensity of sound perceptions, as well as distorted sound localization may significantly reduce and even discriminate against the older worker’s desire and ability to work. At the same time, more and more older people remain in the workforce; many of them undertake part-time jobs. Not only does work help older people preserve their individuality and independence, but it also relieves the social and unemployment burden at the state and federal levels (Czaja, 1990). That is why businesses do not have any other choice but to seek effective human factors engineering solutions to cope with the discussed issues. Unfortunately, although the amount of information about aging is affluent, the data on the implications of aging for work is rather scarce. Generally, books on human factors engineering refer to ergonomic considerations (better workplace design, accommodation, and possible use of assistive technologies), equipment redesign, and possible training needs (Schulz, 2007). These, however, do not address such factors of aging in work environments as absenteeism and turnover (Czaja, 1990). As a result, when it comes to work environments, jobs for older people should be designed to help them preserve their productivity and remain a part of the workforce, even when the need to be absent from work arises. For example, the use of computer technologies could help older people take jobs that do not require leaving their homes. When it comes to vision and hearing issues, a range of information processing computer software could be utilized to enhance the quality of older people’s interactions with the real world (Charness & Schaie, 2003). In similar ways, technology can be successfully used to help older people train their memory, cognitive skills, and attention. For example, older people can be trained to use computer technologies as a part of their attention and memory improvement strategies. Similar recommendations can also cover the areas of communication, transportation, and leisure. Unfortunately, professional human factors engineering research is only at the initial stage of its evolution, and whether older people are given a chance to participate in the major life activities also depends on how well human factors engineering professionals will perform in terms of empirical and practical research. Also, how well businesses and authorities use and implement recommendations and requirements presented as a result of human factors engineering research will predetermine older’ people success in socialization, work, communication and other life activities. Conclusion Human factors engineering is a multidisciplinary science that studies the ways in which humans interact with different environments. When it comes to geriatrics, human factors engineering is expected to study older people’s work and personal capabilities, their limitations, and the ways of addressing and overcoming them. Given that more and more older people live alone and strive to keep their jobs as a matter of better self-esteem and independence, many of them may face serious challenges associated with inevitable physiological biological, cognitive, and mechanical changes. Although the data regarding possible human factors solutions is rather limited, it is very probable that the nearest decade will give older people broader opportunities for self-realization in various social domains, from work to leisure and communication.

The Nature of International Politics

The Nature of International Politics The first principle that Thucydides addresses regarding the nature of international politics calls into question the conclusive goals that each individual entity in the world of international relations deems most important. Thucydides states that a country or state’s ultimate goal is to gain power and ruling over other nations. He illustrates this best in The Melian Dialogue through the actions of the war-loving Athenians.In their effort to maintain their stance of power against their rival Spartans, they travel to the island of Melos with the goal of conquering the Melians; either through force or through the Melian surrender. The people of Melos wish to remain neutral friends of both Sparta and Athens, but the Athenians will not hear of it. In their eyes, staying on friendly terms with a neutral country would be construed as a sign of weakness and fear. The Melians refuse to surrender, resulting in the ultimate destruction of their societ y while the Athenians gain further rule and power for their empire.However, I believe that this principle need not to always hold true, especially in the terms of war through diplomatic countries such as the United States of America. The United States has always held its principles in the effort to spread democracy and morality in the international realm. In The Fog of War, John F. Kennedy disproves Thucydides first principle. In the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the last thing Kennedy and his Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, wanted to do was to attack Cuba or go to war with the Soviet Union to gain power or ruling in any sense.They wanted to deal with the frightening presence of the Soviet Union’s extensive nuclear warheads on Cuban soil in the most diplomatic way possible in order to avoid nuclear war. While this was best for the self-interest of the American people, it was also for the benefit for the citizens of Cuba and the USSR, as nuclear war destroys nation s. Thankfully JFK had the help of a man named Tommy Thompson on his team who personally knew the Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Thompson urged Kennedy to go forward with negotiations with Khrushchev in order to end the Cuban Missile Crisis peacefully.Luckily, it worked. Kennedy and Khrushchev reached an agreement that the Soviet Union would dismantle the weapons as long as the United States would not invade Cuba. Through the peaceful, yet stressful, negotiations, both JFK and Khrushchev went against the international principle that countries only aim to rule and conquer, and instead in the arms of a rational governing body most often the countries own self-interest for safety overrules the desire to prove their power over other countries.Thucydides’ second principle of international politics relates to the idea that between a world of expansive cultures and beliefs, there is no international moral code for war and relations between states. In the Melian Dialogue, Thucydide s exemplifies this idea through the war practices that the Athenians practiced in regards to the Melian people. While some may argue that their initial attempt to discuss the impending attack while offering the option of surrender was â€Å"humane†, the brutal force they eventually brought upon the Island of Melos outweighed their weak attempts in the beginning.Once the Melian people surrendered, the Athenians put all men of military age to death and sold the women and children as slaves. The Athenians practiced the â€Å"might makes right† way of thinking about morality: that those who hold the most power also hold the ability to decide what actions are appropriate where they deem fit. In this case, they were the mighty ones. Their forceful actions toward the Melians were justifiable in their eyes, but across cultures such actions could easily be deemed excessive and radical.Therein lies Thucydides’ argument that there is no such moral code that every nation ca n be held accountable to. In The Fog of War, Robert McNamara is horrified with such a truth, and wonders aloud â€Å"What is morally appropriate in a wartime environment? † He illustrates his question by describing â€Å"Agent Orange†, a chemical that was approved for usage during the Vietnam War while he was acting Secretary of Defense. â€Å"Agent Orange† is a chemical that was often used to take the leaves off of trees, and after the war was discovered to be highly toxic and lethal.The usage of â€Å"Agent Orange† killed numerous citizens and soldiers who were exposed. He continues to ask whether those who issued the approval of â€Å"Agent Orange† criminals? Within the definition of the word ‘criminal’ is the assumption that there is a crime being broken that is made illegal by a system of written laws. But McNamara points out that there are no such kinds of laws in war to determine what is acceptable and what is not and ultimately there is no such thing as an international moral code that can be upheld, especially in the times of war.While there exists no international moral standard, does that mean that no state can be trusted? Thucydides’ third principle of international politics would answer â€Å"yes†. He believes that in the sense of self-interest, one state cannot rely upon alliances and only those alliances that are in line with national honor should be upheld. This principle is evident in the Melian Dialogue when the Melian people state their hope and belief in the Spartan people coming to their aid in the prospect of attack from the Athenians.They believe that if not solely for the Spartan’s will to preserve their neighboring allies (that will surely take note if they don’t come to aid Melos), then for the kinship of the Melian and Spartan race. Ultimately, the people of Melos are proven to have had too much hope in the Spartans, as no one comes to their aid. However, muc h like in the throes of friendship where not all can be trusted, surely some friends and allies can. The Fog of War displays a twisted sense of camaraderie between the USSR and Cuba, a bond that was forged in the joint disparage toward the United States.Their alliance built and housed nuclear weapons on Cuban soil, weapons that had the ability to destroy most of the continental United States. Once the American Government took hold of the dangerous situation and offered negotiations to the USSR in the hopes of avoiding destructive warfare, Nikita Khrushchev had a decision to make†¦and he had two major options. He could ignore the offer of diplomatic problem solving and strike the United States with the nuclear weapons or he could agree to the negotiations JFK brought to the table.On the one hand, attacking the United States guaranteed a responsive strike from the US that would undoubtedly destroy Cuba and kill thousands (not to mention create real problems between the USSR and t he US). And on the other, he could agree to take out the weapons in return for the promise that the US would not attack Cuba. He could be known as the man who saved Cuba from an attack by the United States and could gain national respect for upholding USSR honor and morality.Despite the disturbing urgings from war-mongering Fidel Castro, Khrushchev decided to agree to negotiations. While his actions may have been solely done for self-interest and preservation of the USSR’s teetering relationship with the US, he ultimately had the interest of the people of Cuba in mind even when their own President did not. This act by Khrushchev, despite the reasons behind it, upheld the ideals of alliances: that one nation must be reliable and ready in the ability to protect the people and rights of the ally nation.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 24

Case Study Example This would mean that when the mathematical calculations are tallied in December they will be synthesized and far less than a genuine reflection of company’s exact numbers. But the â€Å"Christmas Bonus† would be present just as the manager wishes and is accustomed to. There is no question that this company’s yearly tradition will provide a better portfolio, but results in a far lower that acceptable ethical standard for all those who participate. The position that Terri is in is a difficult one. It is established that she is new to her position and eager to do the best possible job. Her manager asked her to change the numbers because the last person in her position had had no problem doing so. This directly reflects back to the questionable tactics of organizational socialization. She is presented with unethical tasks as if it common place and an everyday normality, and therefore acceptable. There is even a slight insinuation by the manager that is an expected part of her position. When faced with an ethical dilemma Holly Green, CEO and Managing Director of the Human Factor Consulting Firm, says, â€Å"You have to make decisions on whether you can live with it.†(qtd. in Balderrama, 2009) We all have a conscience, and it usually tells us when something just does not feel right. Often, people just don’t listen to it. She will have to make her decision and then stand by it. If she options not to do the unethical a ct requested there could be some unpleasant repercussions. This will, probably, not be the outright loss of employment, but she could face being passed over for promotions. In some worse case scenarios, the company may make her so miserable that she options to quit the company all on her own.(Zimmerman, 2010) So what does Terri do? Well that is what makes this so difficult. Doing the right thing should not be so hard. If

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Offer and acceptance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Offer and acceptance - Essay Example Any person who feels that the partner has failed to honor a promise can always seek a legal compensation for the breach. For a contract to occur, there must be other preludes that come in the first place, a contract can only be construed following successful offer advanced by the offeror to the offeree and the offeree responds by agreeing with the terms set by the offeror. The offers made by the offeror to the offeree in most cases are time bound and without communication from the offeree within the specified time, the offeror may consider the offer not considered by the intended person (Elliott, and Frances, 1999). The other important factor in contracts is the mode of communication, if it is determined by the offeror to the offeree, then he/she is bound to use the same means of communication when accepting the offer. If the stated means is not used, then the offeree may not claim breach of contract by the offeror incase there is no response. To understand the formation of a contrac t in commercial law, it is important that we understand into details the components of what makes a contract enforceable legally. In this reference, we are going to look into details what constitutes an offer and acceptance in the formation of a contract, the distinguishing factor between an offer and invitation to treat with reference to presence or absence of an offer to warrant acceptance communication. Offer It is normally made by the offeror to the offeree, it stipulates the terms of the contract and in this sense, the recipient who is the offeree should examine all the factors relating to the terms of the offer and make a judgment to accept or not (Emerson, 2004). Once the offerer has made the acceptance, the contract becomes legally binding. This states that any breach of the terms from the either parties can be determined in the court of law for compensation. Offer can be made orally, faxed, emailed, or written and sometimes the offeror may insist on specific means of commun ication to be used by the offeror when making return communication. This must be adhered to and in the case of non-compliance and the offeree uses another means, contract is said not to have occurred (Emerson, 2004). Invitation to treat is sometimes confused for offer; it simply denotes the willingness of an individual to negotiate a contract with an interested party. Circumstances under which invitation to treat are considered includes, auctions, exhibitions, window displays, and advertisements (Keenan, Denis, and Sarah, 2007). They do not form part of a contract since they are not considered as offer. After the communication of an offer to the intended recipient, the offeree is expected to internalize the offer before making acceptance. The offer should be accepted by the offeree as it reads and any alteration on the offer will be considered counter attack on the offer and kills the spirit of the offer in culminating into a contract. If the offeree considers any change of the term s as communicated by the offeror, they should make up for an add which along with the unaltered initial offer should be communicated to the offeror for consideration (Keenan, Denis, and Sarah, 2007). It is important to note that the communication of the offer can be revoked before the offeree makes the acceptance. This communication will have to be addressed to the offeree individually

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Database Applications Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Database Applications - Research Paper Example It mainly focuses on the safe management and maintenance of data, and providing access to multiple applications and users simultaneously. Despite its complexity as compared to flat text files and spreadsheets, it actually makes things easier considering the weaknesses of the latter (i.e. redundant information, outdated data, file size, complex protection of data from unauthorized use and from becoming corrupt), particularly when working with large-scale applications. These issues aforementioned are taken cared of Relational Database Management System (RDBMS), such that the flexibility and security of data outweighs the complexity of the system. Codd's idea was to break down a long row of data fields into smaller tables describing specific subsets of the data collected, ultimately reducing the data footprint and cost. Furthermore, it enforces data integrity by ensuring data type correctness (by using strong data types), eliminating redundant data (by saving data entities in just one p lace), disallowing harmful deletes (by using key constraints), and guarantees efficient retrieval and manipulation of data (by splitting up data into chunks). With SQL Server 2005 Express Edition, you get the advantages of RDBMS.

Friday, July 26, 2019

Media theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Media theory - Essay Example A number of interpretations for these methodologies and styles are possible based on various lenses used to analyze the creation of different media elements. Contemporary media studies consist of various analytical elements and styles. These could depend on semiotics, ideological analysis, psychoanalytical approaches, formalist approaches, feminist approaches, modern approaches, post modern approaches, post structuralist approaches as well as post colonial approaches. However, there is a certain fluidity present between these differing approaches so no one piece of media can be termed as relying on one of these approaches alone. Instead, it is common for more than one device to be used to create media elements (Berger, 2011). This ensures that a singular piece of media will appeal to as many audiences as possible at the same time. In order to satisfy the needs of various subcultures it is necessary to construe a piece of media from as many differing perspectives as possible without s poiling its overall composure. While some pieces of media might contain this contention through the process of directed creation, other pieces of media might contain such influences involuntarily. It is highly obvious that a number of sub cultures also influences the creator of a piece of media. Hence, it is natural to expect a piece of media to be composed of various forms and methods of thinking and style. This is all the more obvious for textual pieces of media more than other kinds of media. It might be argued that other media such as movies for example are far richer in terms of content than textual pieces. However, movies are the joint collaboration of a number of people working together while textual content is often the creation of one individual alone. The depth contained within textual materials is arguably far richer than other pieces or elements of media. This paper will focus on the media analysis of a piece of text contained in the January 2011 edition of Time Magazine titled New Ways to Think of Grief by Ruth Davis Konigsberg. A number of different media analysis approaches will be used in order to decipher the creation and composure of the said piece of media. These will involve a combination of theoretical as well as practical media analysis tools and theories. These tools will be applied to the subject text sequentially to bring out the various influences as they compose the text. The article by Konigsberg tends to look at grief, one of the most basic of all human emotional expressions. Certain human experiences such as happiness, grief, surprise and the like are such basic blocks of the human being that they are seldom revisited for consideration. It is common for an average person to never look into these nooks and crannies and to forge ahead in life using conceptions gathered from society. However, the article penned by Konigsberg forces one to â€Å"revisit the basics† to see how one’s conception of grief is fashioned by the people and social values around a person. This method of looking at grief or this method of looking at anything else is purely post modernist without argument. The post modernist approach relies on â€Å"revisiting the basics† to look for continual and dynamic evolution of issues that fashion human life. The basic tenet of post modernism is the belief that human issues are continually evolving and will continue to behave as such without any stoppage. These ideas are supported by the fact that society is

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Iphone Demand and Supply Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Iphone Demand and Supply - Research Paper Example The entire process includes a transaction and involves the exchange of goods and services for money. This paper helps to discuss and provide an insight into how demand and supply has changed the world in the present modern era with the help of electronics, in specific, the iPhone. This phone has become a phenomenon in the world today, however a news article talks about how the demand outstrips the supply in China for this particular commodity and how that has affected the people at a micro economic level in the country. China Unicom Ltd. Said that it was not being able to meet the demand for iPhones in China with an equal level of supply because of the excess in quantity that has been demanded by the people there. The iPhone is no longer a good that falls under the category of luxury goods because this very fact that its demand is growing day by day, shows that the people are easily able to afford the same and want to purchase it at the price that it has launched at. According to the company, an estimated 200,000 iPhones were pre ordered the very day that the phone went on sale in the country (from the USA) and another 400,000 were sold on that day. The company was able to attract so many buyers because of the popularity that the phone had gained over the Chinese market because of the sale of its previous model, which had further excited a wider consumer base. Even though the phones are more expensive, they offer better features as well as data services which have attracted such a wide consumer base. In economic terms, it is clear and evident that this particular phone has appealed a great deal to at least half of the Chinese market because more and more people have bought it at the price at which it was launched. The iPad was also released in China and went on sale at a fast pace as well. However, the crux of the matter remained that the iPhone’s demand exceeded the supply that the company was able to give to the people. This goes to show that there was an extension of demand in the particular commodity at the same or even higher price. Since the iPhone 4 was costlier than the previous version, an extension (and not just an increase) in demand can be noticed here in economic terms which means that there is movement along the demand curve where the sale and purchase of iPhones in China are concerned. As per the article, â€Å"As of the second quarter, Apple was the fifth-largest smart phone vendor in China with 7.1% of shipments, according to Beijing research firm Analysys International.  Nokia  Corp. had the largest share with 26.7%.† this very statement helps in understanding the kind of consumer base that Apple has created for itself in China; and that even in deep cut throat competition, the company has been able to sustain its position in the Chinese market, which can be seen when the demand for the phones exceeded the supply level. In a nutshell, the concepts of supply and demand  can be viewed with the help of u nderstanding the

Comparison Between Macy's And Polo Specialty Store Essay

Comparison Between Macy's And Polo Specialty Store - Essay Example The invention of the black and white television in 1949 gave a substantial boost to the children wear industry. Children wear shows become popular programs and their licensing made quite a substantial amount of money for the children wear manufacturers. This money was in return re-invested back into the industry thereby enlarging and making it bigger. 1958 and 1959 were also noteworthy years for the fashion industry as the Hush Puppies shoes, and the Barbie Doll were invented respectively. The puppies' shoes were necessary for protecting the feet of the children as walking or working without shoes was not only stressful but also painful and full of discomfort. The invention spirit did not stop as several other new trends in children wear continued to be invented. During the entire 1960's, a whole lot of a variety of colors, patterns, and prints were produced. Some of these colors were light blue, light pink and light green. 1n 1970, various textiles including polyester were invented. Since the invention of the sewing machine, the discovery and subsequent use of manufactured fiber in apparel was another enormous development in the children wear industry. By this time, children wear was also beginning to look like adult wear. In 1980, a crucial shift occurred from manufactured fiber to more natural fiber such as cotton and linen among others. Naturals fibers were of immense preference over the manufactured fibers were either cheap, readily available or simply made better children's clothes.

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) - Essay Example There are many viewpoints on whether paper money should be completely eliminated. However, it would seem fair to suggest that paper money will still have a number of uses and it would be impractical to rely completely on electronic forms of money. This is because of the problems that are generally associated with information technology, such as power failures and database overloads, which could cause a break in the system and would therefore necessitate the use of paper money (Khilawala, 2011). It would be foolish to eradicate paper money completely whilst there is still a risk of these things happening. Paper money is also still popular with many. This is for a number of reasons. Firstly, if paper money were to be abolished, the government of that particular country would have to sell assets to ‘soak up the unwanted notes and coins’ (Rogoff, 2002, p2). It would mean a movement from the non-interest holding debt (cash) to interest holding debt (electronic money), which is an unappealing prospect for any government. The public also seem to have an insatiable demand for paper money, with the main reason for this popularity being the anonymity of cash. This is useful for those committing money-based crimes, but also appeals to the innocent as well for a number of different reasons. It has been suggested that when the government is able to identify the holders of cash using DNA techniques, electronic money may then become as popular as paper money (Rogoff, 2002). Conversely, this does mean that electronic money may be more useful for crime-detection. Despite this, there are a number of reasons why paper money is problematic. Governments may print off more paper money in anticipation of certain events as a way of controlling the economy (Jakobsson & Yung, 1996), but if this prediction is wrong then it may cause issues and as a

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Computational modeling of cerebellar model articulation controller Dissertation

Computational modeling of cerebellar model articulation controller (CMAC) and it's application - Dissertation Example It will address simulations of the cerebellum and neural networks to accomplish biped robot leg and control leg swing in environments with obstacles, in multi output, non-linear systems. According to Miller, Glanz, & Kraft, the cerebellar mode articulation controller (CMAC) can serve as a substitute method to back propagation (Miller, Glanz, & Kraft, 1990). The method includes a footstep planning strategy that is based on the Q-learning concept for biped robot control in dynamical environments. The effectiveness of major problem solving methods in control robot technology research is also of central focus. Predictable and unpredictable dynamic obstacles encountered in the system, such as memory usage, are discussed and a strategy to overcome these obstacles is presented. The empirical analysis includes identification of likely Cerebellum Model Articulation Controller (CMAC) problems in specific environments, inputs and outputs, and viable solutions. The aim of this research is to pre sent a HCAQ-CMAC model that provides memory size and footstep planning solutions for the biped robot in a dynamic environment. Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...2 ABSTRACT†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....3 Contents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.4 List of Figures†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦6 List of Tables†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦..9 Chapter 1 Overview†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 SECTION 1.1 Timeline of development†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦10 Section 1.2 The cerebellum†¦...12 subsection 1.2.1 INPUTS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ .14 subsection 1.2.2 OUTPUTS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.14 subsection 1.2.3 CEREBELLAR CORTEX†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.15 CHAPTER 2 Brain Computer Interface (BCI) INPUT AND OUTPUT†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...16 Section 2.1 Neural Networks †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦19 Section 2.2 Q-Learning AND FUZZY CMAC†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.22 Chapter 3 theory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦. 28 Section 3.1 The cerebellar mode articulation controller (CMAC)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 28 Section 3.2 CMAC Hierarchically Clustered Adaptive Quantization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.34 subsection 3.2.1 Mossy Fibers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.36 Section 3.3 CMAC for design of Biped Robot†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 38 subsection 3.3.2 heuristics†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦40 CHAPTER 4 fOOTSEP pLANNING; fUZZY q†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦44 section 4.1 Control Strategy for obstacle Avoidance †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦

Monday, July 22, 2019

Sex DIfferences Essay Example for Free

Sex DIfferences Essay This experiment performed by the males and females in the Tuesday 4pm psychology lab, was done as a replication of the Halari et al experiment in London in 2005. The hypothesis in the original experiment was that women will, on average, gain a higher verbal fluency score than men and men will, on average, perform more accurately than women on mental rotation. The results obtained from Halari et al’s (2005) clearly prove this hypothesis correct. The results also rejected the null hypothesis which says that men and women will not differ with respect to verbal and spatial performance. Our replication experiment also proved the hypothesis of Halari et al’s (2005) experiment correct and rejected the null experiment. Our experiment followed a certain methodology. In the mental rotation task, each participant was to answer 50 questions which contained the stimuli; each of which showed 2 shapes rotated and the participants were to judge whether they are identical or not. As expected males had a higher accuracy level in this this task compared to females. In the verbal fluency task, the participants were given 3 categories; fruits, vegetables and animals. They had the instruction to write down as many items from the relevant categories as possible. As expected females had a higher accuracy level than the males in this task. In the methodology used in our experiment did contain some weaknesses that may have influenced the results. Our experiment was as free from bias as possible in order to make the results accurate and reliable. For the mental rotation task, every participant received a different set of stimuli, so that the participants could not copy each other. This produced reliable results. However this methodlogy contains a debility. The stimuli ranged from sets of easily distinguishable shapes to much harder ones. Since the stimuli was randomly chosen for each participant it is possible that one participant may have received all the hard ones (females) and another may have received all the easily recognisable ones (males). Another debility in this methodology was that the set of stimuli varied in difficulty as discussed earlier. Also their rotation patterns varied. So some sets were just rotated once while other sets were rotated to an extent where some of  the faces were indistinguishable hence breaking the pattern we perceive causing our minds to get muddled in recognising the stimuli correctly. This is clear in the categories used in the verbal fluency task which have no form of gender bias whatsoever. The categories chosen are generic and known well to both males and females. An example of a gender bias category would be something like computers which is more biased towards males than females. While a catergory more bias towards females would be make up. However despite having no gender difference there was a weakness present in this method; english as a second language. Our group of participants contained people of different ethnicities and nationalities. Which meant that not all have english as their first language. This in turn proves to be a weakness to our expeirment as those people who possess english as a second language, wont be able to think of english words as fast as in their own language, (all words written had to be in english). This would have posed a problem for such participants as they would have had to think of a word in their own language and then translate it into english. This could have decreased some of the participants performance as time span was limited to one minute. Overall, the results obtained from this experiment clearly suggest that men and women specialise in different cognitive abilities in relation to spatial capacity and verbal competency. These results solidify that boys and girls-and men and women-are programmed by evolution to behave differently from one another is now widely accepted, (The Economist, 2006). These results indicate the theory posed by Harvard president, Larry Summers to be true. He pointed out the detail that the number of women in professions which require a spatial understanding such as mathematics, engineering are few, (The Economist, 2006). This however does not state that women have no spatial capability, it only suggests that in comparison to men women are weaker in spatial understanding. Nevertheless this does not say that these abilities are completely innate. These cognitive abilties can be trained, so a woman with a PHD in engineering will definietly have a higher spatial capability than a man working at Coun tddown. According to our results men and women vary in terms of cognitive abilities. Men appear to be better at spatial tasks while females at verbal fluency. This variation is deemed as occuring due to the common battle; nature vs nurture. It is said that the social upbringing plays a big part in understanding the reasons for this variation. When a child is born depending on the gender, parents tend to choose either blue or pink for that child. This stereotype created by society may unwillingly fit young boys and girls into their stereotypical roles. According to, The Economist (2006) it was believed that boys and girls prefer different toys. Where boys prefer cars, trucks and guns, girls prefer dolls and tea sets. However this was disapproved and it was found that girls and boys are already different when they are born due to the hormone, testosterone. When a child is born, it experiences two surges of testosterone- one during gestation and one shortly after birth, (The Economist, 2006). The production of testosterone is higher in males than in females hence creating the ‘boy-like’ behaviour we all talk about. This testosterone is said to be the reason for why boys tend to look at mobile phones longer than people’s faces, the way females do. But the basic theory is that the high levels of testosterone in males produces the rough play. While the low levels in females generate the nurturing tendency in them hence causing them to prefer dolls and tea sets, (The Economist, 2006). Unlike the Halari et al, (2005), the experiments conducted to prove this theory did not contain hormone tests. Hence we cannot conclude hormone levels being the main factor responsible for the variance in cognitive abilities. It is more commonly believed though that the interlacing of both social upbringing and hormone levels is what causes these differences. Although women have that low level of testosterone, by nature they are constructed to be the nurturers. Therefore females tend to prefer the dolls to play with as it is an indication towards their future role as a mother where it is needed that they speak and interact more often with their children. Women on average speak 20000 words a day, 13000 more than men, (Mail Online, 2013). This confirms the findings in our experiment where females were found to have a higher verbal competency. At the same time by nature males are constructed to be the strong protectors. Therefore males tend to prefer the cars or guns to play with indicating towards warrior-like behaviour. This point is also argued by The Economist, (2006). They believe these differences are genetically there via hormone levels and the social stereotyping solidifies the roles that they are genetically made for. This experiment was carried out to distinguish the differences between males and females on a cognitive level. The mental rotation task which tested for spatial ability exhibitied an inclination towards the males as their accuracy levels were higher than the females. However, the verbal fluency task exhibited an inclination towards the females as their accuracy levels were higher than the males. The results obatined from these two independent tests were straight forward, though both can be bettered. The spatial task deduced that males possessed a higher spatial ability than females however the task was not closely related to real life. A true test would have been one that would have provided us with examples of real life where these abilities would have needed to be used. For example, giving the participants a set location to reach and allowing them to guide themselves there. This task would have displayed spatial ability in real life conditions. The verbal fluency task concluded that females possessed a higher vocabulary level however this task lacks in fairness in terms of language. Not every participant had english as their first language causing them difficulty within the one minute time limit. To better this limitation, perhaps next time all participants could be of same background with english as their first language. Also since we replicated the Halari et al (2005) experiment perhaps a better imitation would have been to also carry out the hormone tests. With the tasks we performed the results suggested that men were better at spatial tasks and females at verbal fluency however we cannot generalise this statement. Thus the hormone tests may help us solidify this conclusion. This theory is proved by our experiment as well. Although our experiment did not contain hormone testing like the Halari et al, (2005) our results concluded that males have a higher spatial capacity. This ability is an indication at the warrior-like protector behaviour. Females were concluded to have a higher verbal competency. The results we obtained from our replication of the Halari et al, (2005) helped us conclude the difference between the cognitive abilities in males and females hence proving our hypothesis correct.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

The Importance Of Market Segmentation

The Importance Of Market Segmentation Market segmentation is one of the most important concept in marketing and business (Bowen, 1998). It is believed that segmentation is the most powerful tool to develop strategies and to understand market (Richard and Sundaram, 1994). Segmentation that carried out properly will actually boost up sales and profits (Reid, 1983). However in contrary, the industry players which in this case restaurant seems to believe that by segmenting their market will actually narrow down their business, they tend to believe that price is the most effective tool to attract and win the market (Crawdford-Welch, 1994). Finally, looking to the reasons of the pro and contra, the researcher decided to segmenting the market further which are by psychographic or the lifestyle and behaviouristic or the purchase occasion. It is because the researcher believed that by segmenting the market may lead to understand the market deeper and therefore can come out with right strategies. To this end, the following section will reviews the literature on market segmentation which focus on Generation Y, psychographic and behaviouristic, next will also review about the factors influencing Generation Y in choosing restaurant and last but not least type of consumers by psychographic segmentation. 2.2 The importance of market segmentation Market segmentation does exist because it is believed that market is not similar (Beane and Ennis, 2007) and it is very important as this is a marketing strategy that contributes to business or industry players (Bowen, 1998).Segmentation can actually act as a key to enhance sales and profits while it can help to maximize the usage of facilities by the specific target market, besides that, it as well help to penetrate new market segment and to maintain repeater (Reid, 1983). Besides that, it is as well open up new chances to create new product and advertising strategy (Beane and Ennis, 2007). Kotler (1980) believed that in order for segmentation to be useful and effective, it must be measurable, accessible and substantiable. Kotler (1980, pp.308) mentioned that a segment should be the largest possible homogeneous group of buyers that it pays to go after with a specially designed marketing program. Segment is opportunity (Beane and Ennis, 2007). For instance, senior customers take qual ity of food as their first concern (Knutson and Patton, 1993). While for young customers, food quality is not the most important factor in choosing restaurant (Soriano, 2002). These show that different generation has different demand and need, therefore it is necessary for industry players to understand clearly the characteristics and the trends of each generation. However, industry players in this case restaurants seem to believe that by focusing on one market, it is not effective as it may reduce the sales volume. Most of the industries players emphasize on price while they believe it may attract and retain customers but at last it actually drive to less profit (Crawford-Welch, 1994). It is not a false to target more than a market segment, however, different segment has different characteristic, and hence it is unnecessary to have all discount or price reduction while it is not the most important thing for some market segment. On the other hand, a theory of restaurant revenue mana gement believed that it is important to maximize revenue by keeping the balance of demand and supply but without putting aside customer satisfaction (Kimes, 2004). 2.2.1 Four major markets segmentation Kotler divided market into four main areas which are geographic, demographic, psychographic and behaviouristic. Geographic segmentation is the simplest segmentation. It is to differentiate customers by region, climate and population density. Demographic segmentation in the other hand is the most common segmentation. This is perhaps because demographic segmentation provides the easiest information and allows it to be transferred from one study to another study (Beane and Ennis, 2007). The segmentation divided by age, sex, income, education level, type of family, nationality and race (Beane and Ennis, 2007). Psychographic segmentation or known as lifestyle segmentation is a complicated segmentation as it demands way of life and social class. According to Plummer (1974) psychographic segmentation gives better answer in describing segments compare to demographic segmentation. Last but not least is behaviouristic segmentation, it consists of purchase occasion, benefits sought, user status , degree of usage, degree of loyalty, readiness stage, and marketing factor sensitivity (Kotler, 1980). In this study, the researcher will go through demographic segmentation which is focusing on Generation Y and psychographic segmentation which will divide Generation Y according to their specific character and last behaviouristic which will look into the occasion they have for dine in restaurant. 2.2.1.1 Demographic segmentation Kivela (1997) studied about types of restaurants and he found that factors such as dining occasion, age and income are the main variables that contribute to decision in choosing fine dining, theme, family or fast food restaurant. Apart, it is believed that segmentation especially demographic segmentation plays significant role to help the industry players as Shank and Nahhas (1994) found that in family dining restaurant, older and younger consumers have different preferences. One is more loyal than other and they as well have different habits. Similary, a study conducted by Becker-Suttle, Weaver and Crawford-Welch (1994) found that in term of menu variety and food portion in a full-service restaurant, senior citizen has different expectation with the non-senior one. However, in contrary, Oh and Jeong(1996) believed that demographic variables are not enough to understand specific expectation. Similarly, Swinyard (1977) as well mentioned that demographic variables are the lowest betwee n segmentations. These reasons drive the researcher to believe that it is important to segment market by demographic segmentation but it has to be narrowed down. Therefore, the researcher will go to more specific segmentation which is not only Generation Y in general but specific them by the psychographic as well as behaviouristic segmentation. 2.2.1.2 Psychographic segmentation Psychographic segmentation is help in developing consumers profiles from psychology side based on lifestyles. (Hsu, Kang and Wolfe, 2002). It involves the evaluation of interest, activities and opinions. (Kotler, Bowen and Makens, 1998). Furthermore, psychographic segmentation is used in order to identify deeper consumers psychology and to understand consumers way of living. (Schewe and Calantone, 1978). For instance, Woodside and Pitts (1976) found that psychographic which include lifestyle variables are more useful and accurate than demographic. Same opinion mentioned by Abbey (1979) who found that lifestyle variables are more reliable and applicable rather than demographic. Moreover, Weaver et al. (1994) said that if psychographic research is carried out properly, it will have a great impact on promotional effort. Proper audience and media will be targeted by looking on their psychographic needs. Zins (1998) as well believed that psychographics segmentation is increasing because i t will explain in various ways than demographic segmentation. Based on the Swinyard and Struman (1986), there are three customer segments in restaurant industry which are family diners, romantics and entertainers. While Oh and Jeong (1996) stated that there are four different segments which are classic diners, convenience seekers, service seekers and indifferent diners. On the other hand, Bahn and Granzin (1985) found that there are health, gourmet, value and unconcerned segments that exist. The researchers stated that for those health concerned segments, absolutely they will not choose fast food restaurant as their main dining destination. Using cluster analysis, Yuksel and Yuksel (2002) divided market into five which are value seekers, service seekers, adventurous food-seekers, atmosphere seekers and healthy-food seekers. The researchers conducted the study because they believed that demographic variables like age, gender and income are not enough to understand market expecations (Oh and Jeong, 1996). Crawford-Welch (1991, pp.301) criticized segmenting by demographic and noted decriptive data, by their very nature, are of little analytical worth in that they are not capable of implying causality and are, in turn, poor predictors of behaviour. Demographic has low power of describing market (Swinyard, 1977). Looking for these reasons, the researcher of this study decided to not only look for Generation Y but also narrowing the market to psychographic segmentation and behavioristic segmentation like what Yuksel and Yuksel (2002) had done in their study. 2.2.1.3 Behaviouristic segmentation To be more effective, previous researchers used consumers buying behaviour as one of the segmentation variables (Oh and Jeong, 1996). Some believed that behaviour are better determinants in order to understand the market segments (Loker and Purdue, 1992). It has been mentioned that in order to predict behaviour, benefits has to be offered rather than looking only to the lifestyle, personality, age, gender or nationality. In restaurant cases, services act as attributes that can be called benefits (Bahn and Granzin, 1985). On the other hand, Boulding et al. (1993) mentioned about links between behaviour and service quality, customers help in word of mouth advertising. Customers do will to recommend one establisment if they get better service (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry, 1994). However, service is not the only thing that sell by one establishment. Therefore, to understand better customers is a necessary. 2.3 Generation Y Generation Y is people who born between 1974 and 1994 (Neuborne and Kerwin, 1999 in Hanzaee and Aghasibeig, 2010) and they are children of Baby Boomers or Generation X (Herbig, Koehler and Day, 1993). Adults Generation Y are married, but younger one are still students. Industry players are now focusing on Generation Y as their biggest target market because this generation are large in size and they have potential spending power (Wolburg and Pokrywczynski, 2001) and therefore they are trying to meet up the expectation of this people. Moreover, the reason why it is important to know deeply the expectation of Generation Y is because Generation Y is not easily influence by marketing therefore it needs more effort to target this generation (Bush, Martin and Bush, 2004). It is obvious that age is a factor that makes different generation act differently however it is not the only factor. Teenagers nowadays are different compare to previous teenagers. Commonly, they have less financial commitments. They spend 70% of their income for food, travel and entertainment. They love to go for party, movie and listen to radio (Mark McCrindle, xxxx). He as well believed that people act different according to the age. However, he believed that it is the only reason as he mentioned that experiences play in the part. For instance, Generation X era was where AIDS, single parents, personal computer and multiculturalism took part, while Generation Y have internet, globalisation and environmentalism issues. {{Read : BB understanding gen Y}} Generation Y is optimistic, energetic, technology driven, pragmatic, resilient, with high social awareness and open to and eager for new experiences (Coyeman, 1998, p.40). However, this group will be de-motivated if they are insulted especially regarding their intelligence, over-promised and over exposed (Coyeman, 1998). On the other hand, based on generational theory, different generations bring different values, beliefs, interests and expectations (Benckerdorff et al, 2010) and thus different strategy has to be used. Fields et al (2008) believed that Generation Y is more focused on brands, fun, friends and digital. Generation Y was born and raised during brands period, therefore they are used to it and have different respond compare to other generations (Merrill, 1999). They are relaxed, confident, educated but impatient and self-focused. They are multitasked that greatly influence by friends and mates. Mark McCrindle (xxxx) also mentioned that Baby Boomers rely on data and facts i n making decision while Generation Y rely more on peers. Generation Y live in community and therefore they rather make decision in group than individual. {{Read : BB understanding gen Y}} Previous studies also mentioned that Generation Y are much more needy compare to other generations (Randall.S.H, 2010) and it is because Generation Y has been socialized into consuming earlier (TRU, 1999 in Bakewell and Mitchell, 2003). Furthermore, The purchasing power of adolescents in the market cannot be underestimated. Being customers of their own, adolescents have experienced how to react when services provided were not satisfactory. (Hsu and Chiu, 2008, p.244). These prove that Generation Y are unique and they have different demand and expectation with previous generation, thus to study deeper of what needed by Generation Y is important to help in improving business. 2.4 Generation Y and dining Generation Y spend more because of unusual purchasing power (Phelps, 1999) and they have more disposable income compare to previous generation (Tomkins, 1999 in Bakewell and Mitchell, 2003). They spend their income for entertainment, travel and food (McCrindle, 2002 in Hanzaee and Aghasibeig, 2010). This supported by a survey that conducted by the National Restaurant Association found that most of Generation Ys income is spent for outside food and restaurants (Brook, 2005). Another study by Auty (1992) also found that students who are in the group of Generation Y eat out for social occasions, do not really concern about others recommendation and money. These facts build curiosity of the researcher and therefore the researcher decided to conduct the study in order to find out the factors that considered by Generation Y while choosing restaurant for birthday celebration, hence, industry players especially restaurants may know what exactly to do and what promotional tools to develop. In fact, technology changes play important role in causing Generation Y become more materialistic compare to previous generation. (Bakewell and Mitchell, 2003), this may means Generation Y want technology while they are eating. Hence, it is believed that marketers are being challenged by this young generation because they keep seeking and exploring a new dining places and experience (Wishna, 2000). 2.5. Factors influencing restaurant selection criteria Consumers choose a restaurant based on several factors and knowing what factors that may drive the success of the company is very important in order to plan future strategy of the company (Geller, 1985). 2.5.1 Menu variety and choices Food variety involves various different items in menu. Industry players keep developing menu in order to attract consumers because it had been found that menu variety is one of a crucial factors in creating good dining experience (Kivela et al, 1999). Some concern about healthy menu option and it actually gives great impact in customer perception of dining experience (Johns and Tyas, 1996). Supported by Kivela et al (1999) who mentioned that healthy food is one of the important factors in dining satisfaction. On the other hand, Auty (1992) mentioned that food type and food quality are the most important factors that determine the restaurant choice but when it comes to dining out for celebration or social night, atmosphere is the most important factors. Supported by Lewis (1981) who found that food quality, menu variety, price, atmosphere and convenience are the most important factors. To discuss deeply about menu, West and Olsen (1990) said that menu innovation is very important in o rder to stay competitive and the researchers also said that to maintain reputation and efficiency of operation are the important factors. HA1 : Menu variety and choices have positive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.5.2 Value for money Marketing tools such as sales promotion including discounts and special offers act as tools that motivate consumers (Mill, 2007). This researcher as well believed that when consumers perceived the value got less than the price given, they will not be satisfied. Some of them that price to assume the quality of the restaurant (Muller and Woods, 1994). File : from mei Different literature has different opinion, according to GeorgeCurasi, Bellenger and Danny (2003) discount are major factors that influence restaurant selection. Apart, another study by Mohsin, Mclnthos and Cave (2005) mentioned that general customers choose a restaurant in New Zealand due to value for money, offer variety and quality of food, own skilled and mannered staff and has well timed service. This study was conducted for general customers not Generation Y and this show a contrast with other studies that mentioned money is not the most important factor. HA2 : Value for money has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.5.3 Ambience Physical environment such as ambience, decoration and atmosphere have a great influence on the dining experience (Sloan, 2004) and behavioural intentions (Ryu and Jang, 2007). Ambience or known as atmosphere is an element that plays an important role to customers. It involves design, space and layout, textures and patterns and building style (Collins, 2010). Mehrabian Russell (1974) believed that environment affect feelings that can cause one to stay longer even remain. Lighting and music influence customers senses (Baker Cameron, 1996). Music is frequently used nowadays whether it is in restaurant or shopping center, Smith Curnow (1966) found that shop with loud music indirectly chase customers. This study also has been study deeper by Milliman (1986), the researcher found that they are music volume and tempo that affect time and money spent by consumers. Furthermore, Zopiatis and Pribic (2007) who did their study among students in Cyprus as well mentioned that atmosphere as one of most influencing concern. Supported by Jang Namkung (2009) who found three main factors and one of them is atmosphere of the dining place itself. Obviousily, the design of the dining place itself is very important to generate sales of restaurant. To support this, there was a study which found that design in a store has a significant effect on customer it influence the decision of customer to approach, explore even purchase (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Even if the customers perceive the environment as a pleasure, customer will spend more time and money for it (Donovan et al, 1994). Hence, it is obvious that design of ambience plays a very significant role in affecting customers choices. HA3 : Ambience has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.5.4 Peers Decision makers tend to decide something with regard to consequences of their choices in future, however the future is uncertainty, hence it can be concluded that the decision is a process (March, 1997 in Maitlis and Ozcelik, 2004). Furthermore, during the decision process, one decision is closely related to others decision (Dewey and Bentley, 1949 in Langley, A et al., 1995). To relate to this study, in celebrating birthday, friends and parents may as well play role in deciding the venue, thus, ones decision is made by interference of others. This supported by the finding of GeorgeCurasi, Bellenger and Danny (2003) who found that recommendation from peers are one of the factors that lead customers in choosing restaurant. Although in contrary, Auty (1992) found that young generation does not really concern about others recommendation, but it is still a possibility that one individuals decision is built from others interference. Furthermore, a recommendation from a friend influences significantly in decision to choose a restaurant (Sweeney et al., 1992). Mill (2007) believed that because recommendation from friends is not profitable and it different from advertising thus consumers will believe more and make decision in choosing the restaurant. According to Devine et al., (2003), social influences bring great impact to food choice, because they believed it shows attitude and habits. Apart, consumers heard the dining experience from friends and it help them to judge one restaurant better (Zeithaml and Bitner, 2003). Bailey and Tian (2002) did their study at Indian restaurant and they found that recommendations from friends greatly influence the decision. HA4 : Peers has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.5.5 Service quality Tucci and Talaga (2000) mentioned that service quality affect the customers most in choosing restaurant. Service quality includes staff and physical environment. Human resources are the main key to success. (Enz, 2004). Therefore to have good staff is to start with success. As what had been mentioned by Jang and Namkung (2009) one of the main factors is service quality, which in restaurant case means staff and their services. A staff attitude may harass ones sattisfaction (Oliver, 1981). However, in contary, Clark and Wood (1999) mentioned that tangible factors like food influence more than intangible factors such as friendliness of staff. But that study against by study of GeorgeCurasi, Bellenger and Danny (2003) who found that customers want personalized service which indirectly means they want good staff. In Cyprus, a study has been conducted by Zopiatis and Pribic (2007), the researchers also mentioned that staffs attitude and professionalism are the main factors that influence t he student criteria in choosing dining place. During the time period of the study conducted, students are the Generation Y, therefore those factors are being consider. Moreover, length of waiting time on restaurant service is one factor that concern by customers too (Richarme Colias, 2007) because service time is a very sensitive issue for customers (Christopher, 1999). This supported by Jang Namkung (2009) who found service quality as attribute that influence customers in choosing restaurants. And more, GeorgeCurasi, Bellenger and Danny (2003) did mention about fast check-out as one of the factors that influencing the most. HA5: Service has a postive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.5.6 Food quality Food is the fundemental of restaurant. There should be no doubt that food is one of the major factor that give impact on restaurant. Food should be fresh and tasty in order to maintain the quality and this is one of the factor that plays role in succeed of a restaurant. (Namkung and Jang, 2007). Even some studies had already focused on the food presentation, variety, healthy, taste, freshness and temperature. Kivela et al., (1999) focused on taste and they took it as the attribute in dining experience. It is believed that taste of food is very essential to customers (Cortese, 2003) and it gives impact to future behaviour (Kivela et al., 1999). Fu and Parks (2001) examined quality of food as one of the factors in choosing restaurant. MacLaurin and MacLaurin (2000) did the study on theme restaurants at Singapore and found food quality as one of the most important elements. Same goes to Clark and Wood (1998), they as well found food quality as the most influential factor in restaurant c hoices. Last but not least, Jang and Namkung (2009) found that product quality is important as one attribute that determine the choices of the restaurants consumers. Even Soriano (2002) believed that this is one of the factors that can attract customers to return to the restaurant. However, apart from all those studies, Cullen (2004) added that the attributes will change depends on demographic variables, experience, mood and dining occasion. File : food quality HA6 : Food quality has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria 2.6 Different expectation for different types of restaurant Many previous researchers did not concern about type of restaurant in conducting their study while it is believed that type of restaurant has significant influence on customers perception and expectation (Kim and Moon, 2009). According to Lewis (1981), there are three types of restaurant, family, atmosphere and gourmet restaurants. Different expectation will be bring by customers depends on the restaurant. For example, cleanliness as major factor has been mentioned by Knutson (2000) who did the study in fast food restaurant among Generation Y, followed by staff friendliness, price, service speed and consistency. The researcher as well found that atmosphere, promotional items, discount coupons and drive-through availability are the minor factors that affect the decision in choosing fast food restaurant. While in the study of Kivela (1997) mentioned that for fine dining restaurants, customers wish for good food quality and friendliness of staff, but in casual dining restaurants, they preferred speed of service to be improved and value-for-money food. Noone et al (2007) have done their study and found that customers show unsatisfied when they are rushed in a fine dining restaurant rather than in casual dining restaurant. Other findings as well mentioned by Sulek Hensley (2004), according to them, food quality is a must to full-service restaurants, while the most important factor for fast-food restaurants is waiting time (David Vollmann, 1990). Kim, Lee and Yoo (2006) believed that staff performance plays very essential role in a luxury restaurant. In fact, by considering those factors, therefore this study is conducted in order to find out what factors actually play roles for Generation Y in choosing restaurant for their birthday celebration, as it has been mentioned that different expectation will be bring by customers depends on their needs and perception. But in this study, the researcher decides not to differentiate the respondents by different type of restaurant because there has no previous study conducted yet hence the researcher would like to find out in general which may lead to further details result that can be use for further study. 2.7 Dining Occasion Dining behaviour is depends on dining occasion. For instance, restaurant behaviours are lead from the occasion (Kivela, Inbakaran and Reece, 1999). According to Sweeney et al. (1992), there are two dining occasion exist which are dinner with a group of friends and dinner with a friend. While according to June and Smith (1987) four occasion do exist: a birthday celebration, a business lunch, an intimate dinner and a family dinner. Different occasion bring different level of factors. In this study, an occasion which is birthday celebration is the main concern. By the finding of the previous studies regarding level of importance brings to different occasion, thus it is obvious that different factors and value bring by consumers while they choose their restaurant for birthday celebration. 2.8 Type of restaurants consumers In previous study of Yuksel and Yuksel (2002), they divided market using psychographic segmentation. The researchers used cluster analysis in order to analyze their data and they found that there are five different category of consumers. 2.8.1 Value seekers The researchers suggest that this group put high priority food quality and hygiene while choosing a restaurant. Moreover, they usually do not take location, atmosphere and service quality as their main consideration. HB1 : Value seekers are one type of restaurant consumers 2.8.2 Service seekers In this group, there are people who looking for quality of service while dining, they does not consider food quality as their preference but the price of the food is very important for them. HB2 : Service seekers are one type of restaurant consumers 2.8.3 Adventurous-Food seekers They find that availability of various and interesting food is the most important factor for this group of people. They do not concern about the prices and atmosphere. HB3 : Adventurous-Food seekers are one type of restaurant consumers 2.8.4 Atmosphere Seekers In contrast to other groups, this group want everything while dining, not only the atmosphere but they as well concern about prices, availability of interesting food and the location of the restaurant itself. HB4 : Atmosphere seekers are one type of restaurant consumers 2.8.5 Healthy-Food seekers The researchers as well found that there are certain group of people who concern about the healthy and nutrious food while they dine in a restaurant. They take food quality and hygiene as the most important factors. It will be a plus point for them if they have smoking and non-smoking area in seperation. While they have these high expectations, they do not mind to spend more money as well. 2.9 Hypotheses and Conceptual Frameworks Based on the literature review, six hypotheses appeared as factors that influence Generation Y in choosing restaurant and four other hypotheses appeared as type of restaurant consumers. Show the conceptual framework here (ramework, factors and type of consumers) The conceptual framework provided has positive relation between the factors and Generation Y in choosing restaurant. However, during birthday celebration, different factors may be arised. Moreover, consumers are not homogeneous, different type of people are expecting different. Therefore, the conceptual gaps appeared. In depth, six hypotheses that appear as factors that influence Generation Y in choosing restaurant are: HA1 : Menu variety and choices have positive relation with restaurant selection criteria HA2 : Value for money has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria HA3 : Ambience has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria HA4 : Peers has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria HA5 : Service has a postive relation with restaurant selection criteria HA6 : Food quality has a positive relation with restaurant selection criteria These six hypotheses have direct relation to Generation Y while choosing restaurant for dining but there has been no finding for birthday celebration before, hence this study helped in answering the gap. Yuksel and Yuksel (2002) by cluster analysis classified restaurant consumers into five groups, however, in this study the researcher decided to take out a group which is Healthy food seekers as the study is for occasion dining. Therefore, the researcher to not include healthy food seekers as part of the study. The other four are: HB1 : Value seekers are one type of restaurant consumers HB2 : Service seekers are one type of restaurant consumer HB3 : Adventurous-Food seekers are one type of restaurant consumers HB4 : Atmosphere seekers are one type of restaurant consumers This study designed in order to find out the relation of each type of consumers to the factors. For instance, value seekers may do not concern about atmosphere while service seekers may do not bother about food quality. While for the behaviouristic segmentation, it came from Question 8 and 9. The researcher will further analyze the answers obtained.

The female criminality

The female criminality INTRODUCTION Women, undeniably, have been all but invisible for much of criminologys history.[1] Women have never been as prominent as their male counterparts in criminology, so much so, they can be said to have been ignored for many centuries and it was not until the turn of the 20th century that women who committed crimes were really included in criminological discourse. The advent of the feminist movements throughout this time beginning with the suffragettes to the current Fawcett commission established in 2003, has seen the realisation of womens rights and the struggle for equality supposedly at an end. But as we will see, non-feminist explanations for female criminality still leave much to be desired of as most parts of criminology along with society appears to be wedded to the conventional and stereotypical views of women, with the feminist explanations casting a new view on how women ought to be studied within the field of criminology. This paper aims to discuss and evaluate the various criminological explanations of womens involvement in crime, and suggest possibilities that obviate the traditional reasoning which passes female criminality off as purely biological. The discussion of the criminological explanations will take on two focal threads: why some women commit crime and why the majority do not. Using government statistics from England and Wales, specifically those after the second wave of the feminist movement in the 1960s and the present day, incidence, types and trends of female criminality will be explored. After the issues and problems within the statistics have been identified, I will then discuss whether criminologists can explain conclusively the reason for these findings. Do we need to study female criminality? Criminology is the study of crime which endeavours to explain and find solutions for deviant behaviour, yet there also needs to be a reason why this certain behaviour requires explanation. The theory welcomed by the government is that crime is conduct which has been agreed as contrary to the norms of society. Deviant behaviour is a problem which needs to be resolved, and once the problems have been acknowledged, policy makers can then make decisions and laws based on finding solutions to these problems. Smart notes that only those topics officially designated as social problems are studied, which she articulates is responsible for the sorry state of current knowledge and work on female criminality[2]; women are not seen as a problem, yet they live in the same world as men but commit less crime. This creates a great opportunity for society; finding underlying reasons why women do not commit as much crime as men could possibly be replicated to reduce the number of men committing crimes, or at least aid in the general control of crime. However, according to the Youth Justice Board in 2009, the relatively lower number of young women engaged in offending has meant, however, that most research and expertise has been developed in response to male offending[3]. Gender is one of the most certain predictors of offending[4], and women have never been seen as a social problem because their deviant acts in relation to men are very low. But as is sometimes suggested, statistical quantity alone is not sufficient to explain their lack of treatment.[5] Equality to men was the driving factor for the Womens Movements, but this immediately suggests that women are to be studied as a different entity, unduly undermining any common notion of equality from the outset. Arguably however, this hypothesis is true on some levels, but the equality women strive for is not equality of treatment, but equality of outcome. There are various stereotypical explanations for womens criminality which throughout history have been dominated by internal reasons; biology and psychology. However, what is interesting is how differently men are studied; from the outside. Rather than stating a man has an innate propensity for violence and deviant behaviour in his biological make-up, theorists use external reasons such as economical and class based expectations to explain behaviour. Women do not get the benefit of wholly non-biological determinist reasoning and it could be concluded that it is entirely their fault for simply being born a woman (e.g. Lombrosos female born criminals). In addition to this, female criminality needs to be studied so equality in outcome can be achieved from a justice perspective. Regarding the expectations of women in a social context, which will be discussed in depth later, if a woman was to act as expected, they are likely to be looked upon as the stereotypical weak and fragile being which needs protecting and this can be used to their advantage. But then also the opposite must not be ignored in that if they do not conform to the stereotypical female state then they will be twice condemned, which is extraordinarily unfair from a feminist perspective. Substitution and the media Hypothetically reversing the position of men and women, performed throughout this paper, when contrasting the consideration and study given to both sexes, is a very useful tool to shake out gender issues in criminality. The proliferation of the media also works to the same effect in that when one is to contrast coverage of crimes committed by men, they seem extremely commonplace and the public hardly blink an eye, but when the likes of Myra Hindley and Rosemary West committed perhaps masculine crimes, they were incredibly newsworthy. This can be down to the utmost shock that a woman has committed a crime and this produces a double deviance theory. Even now we do not expect women to behave in a criminal and inappropriate fashion, and the public are utterly shocked when we hear that a mother with the qualities of being tender and caring has shaken her baby to death. Heidensohn concurs, women involved in very serious crimes seem to provide the media with some of their most compelling images of crime and deviance.'[6] THE CRIMES WOMEN COMMIT: INCIDENCE AND TRENDS Despite their various shortcomings, the methods for measuring crime, such as police recorded crime statistics published annually by the Home Office and the British Crime Survey (BCS), have been able to provide an indication of crime trends in England and Wales. The statistics must be viewed with wary eyes because of the discussion that surrounds unreported crime which leads to resources being allocated into improving the collation of statistics; it should not be ignored that this improvement could account for a vast increase in crime rates. In addition to this, the numbers for women are very low to start with, so any slight increase could lead to a huge percentage increase which would skew the findings. Despite this, they will be used to show the incidence and trends in womens offending from: overall gender comparison, women under and over 18, the types of crime women are committing and finally cautioning rates. Gender and the feminist movements Although women gained more presence in society, the vote, property rights and other social triumphs in the first wave of the feminist movements at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, it is really only during the second wave in the 1960s and 1970s that there was a substantial change in the general and criminal behaviour of women which would attract academic and critical comment. The criminal statistics saw a huge boost in numbers of women represented across the board: in 1958, the number of women found guilty for all indictable offences was 17,380: in 1965 this increased to 31,011, and amidst the full swing of the second wave of the feminist movement, in 1975 the number was at its highest at 60,356. In the 1960s, the ratio between men and women again for being found guilty of all indictable offences went down slightly also (from 7:1 to 6:1). The following decades saw a gradual decrease in numbers in the same respect, and in 2007 the numbers were 267,000 men to 45,300 w omen for both sexes and the ratio still lies at 6:1. The trend to be carried forward is that it remains consistent that women commit less crimes than men overall, and the highest increase in female crime was in the 1970s. Age The estimated peak age of offending is 15 for girls (and 17 for boys). According to a Ministry of Justice publication Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System[7] a higher proportion of all women arrested were aged between 10 and 17 than the proportion of men in that age group who were arrested, 25.7 per cent compared to 20.5 per cent. In addition to this, a study in 2009 by the Youth Justice Board[8] found that the offences most frequently committed by adolescent girls are theft and handling stolen goods, and that there has been a proliferation in the amount of girls committing violence against the person, especially if there is an existing relationship with the victim. It is also noted that recent use of alcohol is often linked to the offence/offending pattern. Home Office Statistics show the ratio of men to women found guilty or cautioned for all indictable offences is 3:1 for adolescents and 4:1 for adult women. From this two distinct trends can be deduced; there is what Worral describes as a problem population of young girls committing more crime, especially violent crime, than their older equivalent, and, that as a women gets older she is less likely to commit crime (desistence). Types of Crime As Smart notices, the proportion of women who engage in crime varies quite considerably according to the nature of the offence[9]. From the Home Office statistics for 2008/09[10] it can be seen that there are large differences between women and men in terms of their involvement with the formal criminal justice system, notably, and obviously, less women across all areas of crime. However, there appears to be a rise in theft, especially shoplifting which Smart terms a sex-related offence, a crime that has a preponderance to be committed by one sex more than the other. It follows then that this is the only area where women make significant contribution to the numbers; in 2007, 52,100 women were found guilty or cautioned for theft, the ratio between men and women is a mere 2:1. Although the ratio for fraud and forgery is also 2:1, the numbers are smaller: 9,500 women being found guilty or cautioned. By contrast, the highest ratio between men and women is that of burglary at 15:1 in 2007. The most prolific offence seen in the statistics is that of violence, but it appears to be low-level violence, harassment compared to men. Although it appears that it is more abundant for adolescent girls recently, over the last few decades there has been a dramatic increase of violence in women of all ages. For example, in 1965, 827 were found guilty of violence against the person: either murder, manslaughter, death by dangerous driving, assault or wounding. In 1975 this increased to 2,748 and then to 3,600 in 1985. In 1995 there was a slight, but not significant, decrease in (both men and) women committing violence against the person and until 2007 the number has steadily increased again to 4,500, the ratio since 1995 becoming closer (10:1 to 8:1 respectively). There has been a preponderance of women committing property offences, especially robbery as from the 1970s to present; the incidence has more than quadrupled from 200 in 1978 to 900 in 2007. Finally, according to the Women and the Criminal Justice System statistics[11], the violence that women commit is interfamily; partners and children, and homicides appear to be committed against intimate partners. Cautioning rates Women are more likely to be cautioned than men. Overall in 2007, 56% of women were cautioned instead of being officially processed by the courts for indictable offences compared to 36% of men. It was the same nearly 10 years ago also as in 1991, it was 54%. Looking at the cautioning rate for theft in 2007, out of 52,100 women, 26,000 were cautioned. In regards to violence against the person, 12,700 were cautioned out of 17,200 women. Since 2001 penalty notices for disorder (PND) can be issued for  £50 or  £80 depending on the severity of the offence. Inclusive of all ages, the Statistics on Women and the CJS found that in 2008/09 the top three reasons for issuing a penalty notice of disorder (PND) to women were: theft (retail under  £200) 20,453 (49%); causing harassment alarm or distress 8,051 (20%); and being drunk and disorderly 7,520 (18%) notably all of these appearing to require no physical strength. Although the amount of PNDs being issued has decreased from 207,544 in 2007 to 176,164 in 2008, there was a smaller decrease for the amount issued to women than to men. According to the Ministry of Justice, PNDs were designed to be a simpler and swift way for the criminal justice system to deal with low level criminal behaviour. CRIMINOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS Classical Criminology Early or classical criminologists accounted for female criminality on biological grounds; describing the psychological, physiological and hormonal characteristics of female criminals, or emphasising that their crimes were sexually based. Biological determinism is perhaps historically the most common yet underdeveloped explanation for female criminality, and has dominated discourse for a dreadfully long time, even intertwining itself into modern and contemporary theories despite mass criticism. Women being studied biologically can be immediately contrasted with the study of male criminality which, as Morris suggests[12], has nearly always used specifically socio-economic explanations such as subculture or labelling theory. Cesare Lombroso was the main projector of biological determinism, but this concept can be seen in the early works of W. I. Thomas and Otto Pollak in general, especially in regards to sexual delinquency. Thomas work was written in what Smart describes as the transitional period where criminology became more liberal. Pollak, although his work was carried out a long time after Lombrosos, is classed along with Lombroso and Thomas as a classical criminologist in that they all shared the same conventional views of women as Heidensohn summarises succinctly, Their view of women is heavily stereotyped. Women are defined according to domestic and sexual roles; they are dominated by biological imperatives; they are emotional and irrational.[13] Modern biological explanations have been exampled in this paper to highlight that biological theories remain to this day and when read in light of social theories, biological explanations as far as they go to explain female criminality, tell us more about societys perception of women than anything else. Lombroso One cannot read any textbook related to theories of female criminality without encountering at least a brief mention of the criminological pioneer Cesare Lombroso, whose work, in particular The Female Offender'[14], made specific mention of female criminals for perhaps the first time. Although completely discredited now, the mere fact that women became a topic of study was a phenomenal feat for criminology. With his son-in-law Ferrero and the help of others, along with the emphasis on scientific based study, Lombroso looked initially at 26 skulls and 5 skeletons of female offenders, namely prostitutes, 60 criminal subjects who died in prison and 17 others along with studying photo-portraits. The offences they were said to have committed were those such as infanticide, complicity in rape, arson, theft, homicide, abortion and poisoning. One of the studies within this work regarded the skull capacity and size. They were measured on account of each crime, and such conclusions were made for example, that fallen women have the smaller cranial capacity of all [offering] more analogy to the mentally afflicted than the sane. Essentially, Lombroso was explaining that women commit crime because of physical defects, and they were from the outset born criminals because of this. According to Newburns summary, Lombrosos female born criminal would specialise in not just one but several types of crime a nd surpasses her male counterpart in the refined, diabolical cruelty in which she commits her crimes and therefore a female criminal is a true monster. Also, Lombrosos theory perhaps edged towards the later idea of double deviance, in that the female criminal was doubly exceptionalbecause criminals are exceptions among civilised people and women are exceptions among criminals[15]. On the other hand, in explaining why women did not commit as much crime as men, he argued that firstly there were far fewer female born criminals than males and secondly and more offensive to read nowadays, he suggested criminal women were atavistic; a manifestation of the idea that women were not fully evolved, had underdeveloped intelligence and had less scope for degeneration. Criminality therefore was defined as a mental illness, because womens normal psychology was piety and weakness which meant the normal woman would not have the predisposition to commit crimes due to lack of intelligence, and were not affected by environmental issues as men would be. Evaluating this theory with modern eyes, the criticisms of this study are obvious, but one cannot lose context of the time in which it was carried out. It was, despite its failure, an undoubtedly sincere attempt to justify certain beliefs and theories.[16] However, it was completely ignored that the beliefs were founded on premises so naà ¯ve. Also, the theory suggests that there should be more women committing crimes, but according to the statistics this is not true. Of course, the study is archaic and did not really progress understanding of female criminality, as Heidensohn points out, the observations made of the photographs are as objective as an adjudicator in a beauty contest. However, it does tell us about the perceptions of women in that time and that worked as a starting point for later theorists to use as a point of comparison and critique. Thomas Thomas early work Sex and Society[17]was more akin to the works of Lombroso in that it studied women in regards to their physiological energy, suggesting that women were altogether less creative than men and therefore were not destined to commit crime. It was critically lacking in its applicability to all women, as it focussed on immigrants and peasant women already seen as a lower species in that time, and again based ideas on detrimental societal views of women. His later work, The Unadjusted Girl,[18] however, was a first glance at the social reasons why women could commit crime, namely that women were more aware of their deprivation in society in his time of writing and therefore likely to be frustrated, leading to the disorganisation of [their] life and potentially to sexual delinquency'[19]. Society transformed whilst Thomas was writing and that because of the breakdown of traditional restraints on women they are more likely to be unadjusted. Here, instead of appreciating the progress, he displays contempt for the ideological change in society and thus promotes repression. He theorised that women from the start were trying to find the legitimate role of the good wife, mother and dutiful daughter and in failure of this they acquired the illegitimate role, that is to say the degenerative criminal or more usually the sexual delinquent. The legitimate role was merely a sign of the times dictated by the middle-class norm, not an adequate expl anation. Pollak In his work, The Criminality of Women in 1961, Pollaks argument was that women commit just as much crime as men but it is hidden, partly because of the social order in which women live, but also because of a womens physiology particularly in regards to sex. He agreed with Lombroso and Thomas in that the most likely degeneration of women was to prostitution, which was true at that time, but has no bearing on prostitution now. Prostitutes now, according to the Home Office website[20] are not there voluntarily and are usually forced into it. He explained that women were empirically deceitful and manipulative in their nature because they conceal their menstruation every month, and that their passive nature during sexual intercourse enables women to discover and acquire confidence in their ability to deceive men in all respects.'[21] Obviously Pollak could not get away from his apparent infuriation that it was men on show with their erection, and women could hide how they really felt. Her e Pollak has taken this idea and translated it into the assumption that all women are vengeful, manipulative and cruel deceitful beings, not really moving on from the perceptions of women in Lombrosos time. Regarding the statistics, Pollak was perhaps correct when he argued that women are likely to commit offences against family members; such as poisoning their husbands, sexually abusing or killing their children. And also that persons are less likely to report a crime committed to them by a woman, as Smart notes the victims are usually children and are unable to report the crimes of their parents.[22] But his basis for this conclusion is flawed as he overlooks crimes committed by men towards their family, makes judgements completely based on the sex discrimination in society at the time and again completely ignores that this is the case. Because of this, he would probably be surprised by, and would not fit in with his conclusions, the amount of hidden wife battering and domestic abuse committed by men that has come to light recently if he were writing today. He also suggests that because of their nature, their acts are cunning and vengeful (putting poison into their husbands food) explained because their vengeance is a product of their monthly reminder of their inferior status to men and they are the persons closely related to the domestic task of food preparation, again decisively based on the perceived domestic role of women at the time. His study does correspond with the current statistics in that women are likely commit crimes within the home, but his original study was not based on any real evidence but on societal assumptions and preconceptions about the behaviour of men and women, which at the time he was oblivious to the fact that the power and societal position of men and women was completely imbalanced. Chivalry Theory Pollak, considering the very low number of female criminals, also proposed that men, especially those in the CJS, had an innate chivalry towards women. He argued that they have the same (he would argue misconceived) conceptions of women as his societal counterparts do; that women are weak and fragile, but they have deceived themselves into believing this and not realised the true nature of women. They are therefore are less likely to report, charge and convict women for the offences they engage in.'[23] In all aspects of life, Pollak has described that women are treated less severely than men to their advantage and this discrimination is to mens disadvantage. However, as Smart notes, although recognising a darker side of chivalry he has not mentioned the disadvantages of this discrimination towards women, and does not criticise the double standards for men and women; he treats it as the norm. However, it could be suggested that this theory is adequate because it is very much in effect today. The CJS currently appears to deploy this innate chivalry that protects women from the full rigours of the law, which could explain why a great deal more women are cautioned than men. Chivalry gains its credence because it is how one would expect women to be treated in a society which stereotypically views them as delicate and in need of protection. Interestingly, the chivalrous nature of the law can be seen in practice as with regard to infanticide in particular, where the Home Office stated in rejecting the proposal to abolish this offence: That a mother can be charged with infanticide on the basis of the ingredients for manslaughter is in keeping with the desire to treat such cases with compassion, in particular the desire not to force a mother to be brought face to face with the admission of whether or not she intended to kill her child.[24] (Emphasis added) However, despite of this grave offence, it is mainly true today for perhaps petty crimes, where the statistics suggest that women are more likely to be cautioned than thoroughly processed in the CJS. But this could also be explained, not by chivalry, but because there is a strong urgency for diversion in the CJS, costs are always a priority, as is police time and resources. However, Pollaks theory generalises the lenience that women get, although it is relevant on some levels, it pays no heed to the fact that after due process, female murderers and those who commit very serious offences will go to prison. Modern Biological Determinism Hormonal and Mental Imbalance Although Lombrosos work is said to have continued to exert influence long after it was written[25], Edwards states that too much emphasis is sometimes placed on Lombroso as godfather of biological criminology, arguing that medical professionals, such as Icard, Krafft-Ebing and Krugelsten walked the terrain far before Lombroso. Despite the criticisms of biological positivism, it cannot be ignored that all women have undeniable stages in their development cycle[26] namely in menstruation, menopause and after giving birth. The common theory in this respect, for why women do commit crime, is that hormonal imbalance dictates their deviant behaviour, particularly violence. Even Lombroso found this link in his work after finding that 72 out of 80 women arrested for resisting public officials were menstruating at the time[27]. Contemporary criminologists such as McClean, Wood, Devlin and Mercier have also claimed the physiological differences between men and women as a reason for criminality, but have not given substantial reasons as to why the rest of the female population have not committed crimes whilst going through the same crisis periods.'[28] Freud lends a suggestion here as he believed people are born with anti-social criminal qualities, but the better amongst them learn to control this. His theory suggests women do not have the fear of castration (as do men baring the Oedipus complex) which would be used to control their impulses, but suggests their passivity and want of affection controls them. It is commonly known that women experience mood swings, tension, water retention and headaches, however, 19th century theory exaggerates the mood swings into unaccountable violence and intolerable evil and cruelty. The works of the late Dr Dalton whom coined the term PMS to describe the changes women experience in these times, and it is accepted by the law that there can be uncontrolled aggression at certain times of the month, and PMS has the possibility to be a mitigating factor in the sentencing of female criminals under diminished responsibility in the law of evidence in England. For example, in a case in 1981, Christine English killed her boyfriend by driving into him. After pleading guilty to manslaughter on grounds of diminished responsibility due to pre-menstrual syndrome she was conditionally discharged. Furthermore, biological theory has manifested itself into the law of infanticide in that the Infanticide Act 1938 s.1 (1) states: ..where a woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her child being a child under the age of 12 months, but at the time of her act or omission the balance of her mind was disturbed by reason of her not having fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to the child or by reason of the effect of lactation. However it is curious to note that the medical profession refuses to accept this, in its definition, symptomatology, treatments or rates of manifestation[29]. Crimes such as infanticide can only be committed by a woman. Naturally, criminologists cannot in any way try to fit this crime into gender-neutral theories; there has to be something particular about women. On the other hand, infanticide still remains, according to the Law Commission in a Home Office Consultation Paper in 2008, a piece of legislation which is a practicable legal solution to a particular set of circumstances, which gives something to consider if there was no crime of infanticide. Accepting PMS and infanticide in the law gets varied responses, usually either outrage that a woman could literally get away with murder, or that recognition of biological happenings that every woman has is a positive step, however the deep rooted connotations are far more complex. Some might see it as positive that women are getting recognition, whereas others would see retrogressive irony in play; women want to gain equality, but they too are immersed in the want for allowances to be made for them, and also that PMS constructs womens normal experience and behaviour as abnormal'[30]. Furthermore, the masculinity of law does not understand womens problems, so it is easier to accept mental imbalance than challenge the norms of society, and so an account of PMS, as Raitt and Zeedyk suggest, is striking only because social norms dictate a particular baseline for womens behaviour and when they fail to meet that expectation, illness provides a convenient explanation[31] Consequently, Smart notes that, in principle, the law should be held to be equally applicable to all regardless of sex, (noting also, race, class and other distinctions) but in reality this does not happen. There are at all times a number of societal connotations or stereotypes, such as the chivalrous nature of men, and the stereotypical way women are perceived which overshadow what should be happening, and determine what does happen in regard to the study of crime, and although this should not be the case, it does reveal the underlying, discriminatory views towards women that would better be abandoned for the sake of the quality of explanations for criminality. Finally, it would be interesting to use substitution here. Firstly if women were in power in society, there would be no explanations for deviant behaviour down to PMS, as having PMS at certain times or experiencing the effects of childbirth and lactation would be the norm. There would probably be explanations for why men behave they do, for example neurosis because they cannot have children. Brain Function Although truly biological theories seem to have disappeared from criminology[32], Lansdell, in a study of laterality of verbal intelligence in the brain in 1962[33] noticed that when males and females had strokes or lobotomies, their recovery processes were different even though the injury was the same: women recovered better because they found that their brain hemispheres are more connected, enabling the female brain to possibly assimilate all sorts of information that male brains would keep separate. How this would become an explanation for female criminality would be quite complex and I would profess that it would see criminologists using these findings to merely support the well known stereotype that women can multitask. Nevertheless, it could be suggested that women have less chance of being caught as they could plan the offence thoroughly, or be able to perceive the consequences of their actions before they can perform an act which would render them criminal, but these would am ount to huge generalisations, and would not conclusively explain why women do or do not commit crime. Although it is arguable that as with any disease of the body